Full biochemistry D pharma 2nd year.

 

Ques: what are carbohydrates? describe its structure.

• Definition: Carbohydrates are one of the fundamental macronutrients that play a pivotal role in providing energy for the human body, alongside proteins and fats.

carbohydrates are complex molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They come in simple forms, known as monosaccharides, and complex forms, like starch and cellulose.

They serve as the body's primary source of energy, supplying the fuel required for various bodily functions and activities.

Carbohydrates play a vital role in providing energy for daily activities and should be a significant part of a healthy diet, obtained from a variety of food sources.

 

• Composition: Carbohydrates are composed of three essential elements: carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.

These elements combine in specific ratios to form sugar molecules, the basic building blocks of carbohydrates.

 

• Basic Unit - Monosaccharides: The smallest unit of carbohydrates is known as a "monosaccharide."

These are simple sugar molecules, and common examples include glucose and fructose.

Monosaccharides are easily absorbed by the body and serve as an immediate source of energy.

 

• Complex Carbohydrates: Carbohydrates can also exist in more complex forms. When multiple monosaccharide units are chemically linked together, they form complex carbohydrates, often referred to as "polysaccharides." The most well-known polysaccharides are starch and cellulose.

 

• Starch: Starch is a complex carbohydrate composed of numerous glucose molecules bonded together in a branched or linear structure.

It serves as a primary energy storage molecule in plants and is a significant source of dietary energy for humans. Common dietary sources of starch include potatoes, rice, and grains.

 

• Cellulose: Cellulose is another complex carbohydrate made up of glucose molecules but arranged in a manner that the human digestive system cannot break down. However, it plays a crucial role in our diet as dietary fiber.

Dietary fiber derived from cellulose supports digestive health by aiding in regular bowel movements and preventing constipation.

 

• Role in the Diet: Carbohydrates are essential for maintaining overall health. They provide a readily available and efficient source of energy, making them a vital component of a balanced diet.

Carbohydrates should make up a significant portion of daily caloric intake, particularly for individuals engaged in physical activities that require substantial energy expenditure.

 

• Food Sources: Carbohydrates can be found in a wide range of foods, including grains (such as wheat, oats, and barley), legumes (beans and lentils), fruits, vegetables, dairy products (like milk and yogurt), and sugary items. These diverse sources offer varying types of carbohydrates, from simple sugars in fruits to complex starches in grains.

 

Ques: classification of carbohydrates.

In simple terms, carbohydrates are made of atoms and come in different forms. Monosaccharides are the simple building blocks, and when they stick together, they form bigger carbohydrates like starch and sugar. These carbohydrates have various shapes and jobs in our bodies.

 

1. Composition: Carbohydrates are made up of carbon (C), hydrogen (H), and oxygen (O) atoms. These atoms combine to create sugar-like molecules.
2. Monosaccharides {Building Blocks}: The simplest carbohydrates are called monosaccharides, which are like single sugar units. They have a formula that looks like (CH2O)n, where "n" represents the number of carbon atoms. For example, glucose has 6 carbon atoms and is a common monosaccharide.
3. Ring Shape: Monosaccharides often form ring shapes, like tiny rings, when they're in water. These rings can have five sides or six sides, depending on the sugar.
4. Glycosidic Bonds {Sticking Together}: Carbohydrates get bigger when monosaccharides stick together. They do this by making "glycosidic bonds" between specific parts of the sugar molecules.
5. Disaccharides {Pairs}: Sometimes, two monosaccharides join together to form a pair called a disaccharide. An example is table sugar (sucrose), which is made of glucose and fructose.
6. Polysaccharides {Big Chains}: Polysaccharides are large carbohydrate chains formed by linking many monosaccharides. Starch in plants and glycogen in animals are examples. The links between monosaccharides can be like branches or in straight lines.
7. Isomers {Different Shapes}: Carbohydrates can have the same ingredients but different shapes. These different shapes give us various types of carbohydrates with unique functions in our bodies.

Ques: what are qualitative test for carbohydrate? discuss it briefly.

USE THIS DATA WRITE THIS ON FAIR.

Qualitative tests for carbohydrates are the methods to detect the presence or absence of carbohydrates in a substance.

Carbohydrate are organic compounds that contains carbon, hydrogen and oxygen atoms usually in a ratio 1:2:1.

Carbohydrates can be classified into monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides, depending on the number of sugar units they contain.

hSome of the qualitative tests for carbohydrates are:

 

Molisch's test:

This test uses a reagent called Molisch's reagent, which is an alcoholic solution of alpha-naphthol. When Molisch's reagent is added to a carbohydrate solution and then concentrated sulfuric acid is added along the side of the test tube, a reddish-violet ring forms at the junction of the two liquids. This indicates the presence of carbohydrates.

Benedict's test:

This test uses a reagent called Benedict's reagent.

When Benedict's reagent is heated with a carbohydrate solution, the blue colour of the reagent changes to orange-red due to the formation of copper oxide.

This indicates the presence of reducing sugars.

Fehling's test: This test is similar to Benedict's test, but it uses two solutions: Fehling's solution A (copper sulfate) and Fehling's solution B (sodium hydroxide and potassium sodium tartrate). When these two solutions are mixed and heated with a carbohydrate solution that contains reducing sugars, the blue color of the mixture changes to brick-red due to the formation of copper oxide. This also indicates the presence of reducing sugars²⁴.

Barfoed's test: This test uses a reagent called Barfoed's reagent, which is a solution of copper acetate and acetic acid. When Barfoed's reagent is heated with a carbohydrate solution that contains monosaccharides (such as glucose, fructose, ribose, etc.), the blue color of the reagent changes to red due to the formation of copper oxide. However, if the carbohydrate solution contains disaccharides (such as sucrose, maltose, lactose, etc.), no color change occurs. This test can distinguish between monosaccharides and disaccharides²⁴.

Bial's test: This test uses a reagent called Bial's reagent, which is a solution of orcinol, ferric chloride, and hydrochloric acid. When Bial's reagent is heated with a carbohydrate solution that contains pentoses (such as ribose, arabinose, xylose, etc.), a green or blue-green color develops due to the formation of furfural orcinol complex. However, if the carbohydrate solution contains hexoses (such as glucose, fructose, galactose, etc.), no color change occurs. This test can distinguish between pentoses and hexoses²⁴.

- *Seliwanoff's test*: This test uses a reagent called Seliwanoff's reagent, which is a solution of resorcinol and hydrochloric acid. When Seliwanoff's reagent is heated with a carbohydrate solution that contains ketoses (such as fructose), a red color develops due to the formation of furfural resorcinol complex. However, if the carbohydrate solution contains aldoses (such as glucose), no color change occurs or a faint pink color may appear after a long time. This test can distinguish between ketoses and aldoses²⁴.

- *Iodine test*: This test uses iodine as a reagent. When iodine is added to a carbohydrate solution that contains polysaccharides (such as starch), a blue-black color develops due to the formation of starch-iodine complex. However, if the carbohydrate solution contains monosaccharides or disaccharides, no color change occurs or a yellow-brown color may appear due to free iodine. This test can detect polysaccharides² .

 

These are some of the qualitative tests for carbohydrates that can help us identify different types of carbohydrates in a sample. I hope this explanation was helpful and easy to understand. 😊

 

Source: Conversation with Bing, 22/9/2023

(1) Experiment_728_Qualitative Testing of Carbohydrates 1_1. https://chem.libretexts.org/Courses/Los_Medanos_College/Chemistry_6_and_Chemistry_7_Combined_Laboratory_Manual/Experiment_728_Qualitative_Testing_of_Carbohydrates_1_1.

(2) Qualitative and Quantitative Tests for Carbohydrates - Biology Discussion. https://www.biologydiscussion.com/carbohydrates/test/qualitative-and-quantitative-tests-for-carbohydrates/13042.

(3) Qualitative Analysis of Carbohydrates (Theory) : Class 12 : Chemistry .... http://www.amrita.olabs.edu.in/?sub=73&brch=8&sim=209&cnt=1.

(4) Qualitative Analysis of Carbohydrate - Biology Reader. https://biologyreader.com/qualitative-analysis-of-carbohydrate.html.

(5) Qualitative Analysis of Carbohydrate - Biology Reader. https://bing.com/search?q=qualitative+test+for+carbohydrates.

(6) Qualitative tests of Carbohydrate - KSU. https://fac.ksu.edu.sa/sites/default/files/carbohydrate_i.pdf.

WRITE THIS ON FAIR USING SAMPLE + THIS DATA

 

Ques: Write a short note on importance and functions of carbohydrates?

Carbohydrates are one of the essential macronutrients in our diet, and they serve several crucial roles in the human body. Here's a short note on their importance and functions:

1. Energy Source: Carbs are the body's main energy source, powering daily activities.
2. Brain Fuel: They provide glucose for the brain, aiding mental focus.
3. Storage: Excess carbs become glycogen, stored energy in muscles and the liver.
4. Digestive Health: Carbs with fibre prevent constipation and support digestion.
5. Cell Structure: Carbs are vital for cell and tissue structure.
6. Immune System: Certain carbs aid the immune system in fighting infections.
7. Taste Enhancement: Carbs add sweetness and flavour to foods.
8. Athletic Performance: Crucial for energy during physical activities.
9. Weight Management: Fiber in carbs helps control appetite.
10. Overall, Health: A balanced carb intake is key to overall health and well-being.

11. Blood Sugar Regulation: Carbohydrates help regulate blood sugar levels, preventing them from getting too high or too low.
12. Quick Energy: They provide a rapid and easily accessible source of energy for immediate needs.
13. Metabolic Health: A balanced carbohydrate intake supports metabolic health and insulin sensitivity.
14. Food Preservation: Carbs are used in food preservation techniques like canning and jam-making.
15. Fuel for Muscles: Muscles rely on carbohydrates during exercise and physical activities.
16. Enhanced Flavor: Carbs contribute to the taste and texture of baked goods like bread and pastries.
17. Vitamin Transport: Some carbs aid in transporting essential vitamins in the body.
18. Weight Loss Support: Fiber-rich carbs help with weight loss by promoting a feeling of fullness.
Balanced Diet: Including carbs as part of a balanced diet ensures a diverse nutrient intake.

 

 

Define proteins. Give the classification of proteins based on composition and solubility with examples?

Proteins are complex organic molecules -- that play a fundamental role --  in the structure and function -- of living organisms. They are composed of long chains of amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins. Proteins are involved in a wide range of biological processes, including catalyzing chemical reactions, providing structural support, transporting molecules, and serving as signals for cellular communication.

Classification of Proteins Based on Composition:

1. Simple Proteins: These proteins are composed solely of amino acids. They can be further categorized into:

·         Fibrous Proteins: Fibrous proteins have a long, thread-like structure and are often insoluble in water. They provide structural support to cells and tissues. Examples include collagen and keratin.

·         Globular Proteins: Globular proteins are globe shaped and are usually soluble in water. They perform various biological functions, such as enzymes, transporters, and antibodies. Haemoglobin (responsible for oxygen transport in blood) and insulin (regulating blood sugar levels) are examples of globular proteins.

2. Conjugated Proteins: Conjugated proteins consist of amino acids and other non-amino acid components. These additional components are essential for the protein's function. Examples include:

·         Glycoproteins: These contain carbohydrate groups attached to the protein. They are often involved in cell adhesion and recognition. Immunoglobulins (antibodies) are glycoproteins.

·         Lipoproteins: Lipoproteins contain lipids (fats) and proteins. They play a role in lipid transport in the bloodstream. High-density lipoprotein (HDL) and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) are examples.

·         Metalloproteins: Metalloproteins contain metal ions as cofactors, which are essential for their function. Hemoglobin, which contains iron as a cofactor, is an example of a metalloprotein.

Classification of Proteins Based on Solubility:

1. Scleroproteins: These are fibrous proteins that are generally insoluble in water. They provide mechanical support and are found in structural tissues like skin, tendons, and cartilage.
2. Albumins: Albumins are soluble proteins---  found in blood plasma and other body fluids. They help maintain osmotic pressure and transport various molecules, including hormones and fatty acids.
3. Globulins: Globulins are a diverse group of proteins, some of which are soluble in water while others are insoluble. They have various functions, including immune response, transport of lipids, and enzymatic activities.
4. Histones: Histones are highly alkaline proteins found in cell nuclei. They play a crucial role in DNA compaction and regulation of gene expression.
5. Protamines: Protamine’s are highly basic proteins found in the sperm of some species. They are involved in DNA packaging within the sperm nucleus.

These classifications provide a framework for understanding the diversity of proteins based on their composition and solubility characteristics. Proteins are essential components of living organisms, and their structure and function vary widely to fulfil the many roles they play in biological processes.

 

Define amino acid. classify amino acid based on chemical nature and nutritional requirements with examples.

Amino acids are organic compounds that serve as the building blocks of proteins. They are essential to life as they play a crucial role in various biological processes, including the synthesis of proteins, enzymes, hormones, and neurotransmitters.

 

Amino acids consist of a central carbon atom (the alpha carbon) bonded to four different chemical groups: an amino group (NH2), a carboxyl group (COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a side chain (R group), which varies among different amino acids.

 

 

Classification of Amino Acids Based on Chemical Nature:

Amino acids can be classified into several categories based on the chemical properties of their side chains (R groups):-

1. Non-Polar Amino Acids: These amino acids have hydrophobic (water-repelling) side chains, and they tend to be insoluble in water.
• Example: Glycine, Alanine, Valine
2. Polar Amino Acids: Polar amino acids have hydrophilic (water-attracting) side chains, making them soluble in water.
• Example: Serine, Threonine, Asparagine
3. Aromatic Amino Acids: Aromatic amino acids contain a ring structure in their side chains, which can absorb ultraviolet (UV) light.
• Example: Phenylalanine, Tyrosine, Tryptophan
4. Acidic Amino Acids: Acidic amino acids have carboxyl groups in their side chains, making them acidic and capable of donating hydrogen ions (H+).
• Example: Aspartic Acid, Glutamic Acid
5. Basic Amino Acids: Basic amino acids have amino groups in their side chains, making them alkaline and capable of accepting hydrogen ions (H+).
• Example: Lysine, Arginine, Histidine

Classification of Amino Acids Based on Nutritional Requirements:

Amino acids can also be classified based on their nutritional importance for humans:

1. Essential Amino Acids: These are amino acids that the human body cannot synthesize on its own and must obtain from the diet. There are nine essential amino acids.
• Examples: Phenylalanine, Valine, Threonine
2. Non-Essential Amino Acids: Non-essential amino acids are those that the body can synthesize internally, and there's no strict dietary requirement for them.
• Examples: Glycine, Glutamine, Proline
3. Conditional Amino Acids: Conditional amino acids are typically non-essential, but they may become essential under certain conditions, such as illness or stress.
• Examples: Arginine, Tyrosine, Cysteine

A balanced diet that includes a variety of protein sources is essential to ensure an adequate intake of all essential amino acids. These amino acids are crucial for the body's growth, maintenance, and overall health, as they are used to build and repair tissues, synthesize enzymes and hormones, and carry out various metabolic processes.

 

What are the qualitative tests of protein? And there procedures Discuss briefly.

 Left for now

 

 

Discuss briefly biological importance of amino acids?

Building Blocks of Proteins:

Amino acids are the fundamental units that make up proteins, which are essential for the structure and function of cells and tissues.

Enzyme Function:

They play a crucial role as cofactors for enzymes, facilitating various biochemical reactions in the body.

Cell Signalling:

Certain amino acids act as signaling molecules, helping in communication between cells and tissues.

Neurotransmitter Synthesis:

Amino acids are precursors for neurotransmitters, the chemical messengers that transmit signals in the nervous system.

Immune System Support:

Some amino acids contribute to the production of antibodies and other components of the immune system, helping defend the body against infections.

Energy Production:

In times of need, amino acids can be converted into energy, providing a secondary source of fuel for the body.

pH Regulation:

Amino acids can act as buffers, helping to regulate the pH balance in the body and maintain stable conditions for biochemical reactions.

Detoxification:

Certain amino acids are involved in the detoxification of harmful substances, aiding in the elimination of waste products from the body.

Tissue Repair and Growth:

Amino acids are essential for the repair and growth of tissues, particularly important in processes like wound healing and muscle development.

Hormone Regulation:

They participate in the synthesis of hormones, which regulate various physiological processes, including metabolism and stress responses.

Maintaining Fluid Balance:

Amino acids contribute to the regulation of fluid balance in the body, helping to prevent conditions like edema.

Transportation of Nutrients:

Some amino acids are involved in the transport of essential nutrients across cell membranes.

Collagen Formation:

Amino acids such as proline and glycine are critical for the synthesis of collagen, a structural protein important for the skin, bones, and connective tissues.

Antioxidant Défense:

Certain amino acids function as antioxidants, protecting cells from damage caused by free radicals.

Blood Clotting:

Amino acids are involved in the synthesis of proteins necessary for blood clotting, preventing excessive bleeding in case of injury.

 

 

what are the diseases related to malnutrition of proteins?

Malnutrition of proteins, where the intake of protein is insufficient or the quality of protein is poor, can lead to various health problems. Protein deficiency can manifest in several diseases, including:

 

Kwashiorkor:

A severe form of protein-energy malnutrition characterized by edema (fluid retention), muscle wasting, and a swollen belly.

Commonly occurs in children with a diet high in carbohydrates but low in protein.

Marasmus:

Another form of protein-energy malnutrition but more generalized, involving severe calorie deficiency along with insufficient protein.

Results in extreme weight loss, muscle wasting, and overall weakness.

Protein-Energy Malnutrition (PEM):

Encompasses both kwashiorkor and marasmus, indicating a lack of both protein and overall energy intake.

Can affect physical and mental development in children.

Cachexia:

A condition of severe muscle wasting, and weight loss often associated with chronic illnesses like cancer, HIV/AIDS, or advanced heart failure.

Represents a state of profound protein deficiency.

Edema:

Protein is crucial for maintaining the balance of fluids in the body. Protein deficiency can lead to fluid accumulation, causing edema, especially in the extremities.

Muscle Atrophy:

Inadequate protein intake can result in the breakdown of muscle tissue, leading to muscle atrophy and weakness.

Impaired Immune Function:

Protein deficiency can compromise the immune system, making individuals more susceptible to infections and impairing the body's ability to heal.

Anemia:

While primarily associated with iron deficiency, protein deficiency can contribute to anemia, as proteins are essential for the production of hemoglobin.

Fatty Liver:

In severe protein deficiency, the liver may become fatty due to the impaired synthesis of proteins and altered metabolism.

Hair and Skin Issues:

Protein is essential for the synthesis of keratin, a protein found in hair and skin. Protein deficiency can lead to hair loss, brittle hair, and skin problems.

Oedematous Malnutrition:

A condition characterized by severe protein deficiency leading to generalized edema, similar to kwashiorkor.

 

Discuss kwashiorkor with its causes, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and complications.

Kwashiorkor:

Causes:

       Insufficient protein intake, especially when the diet is high in carbohydrates.

       Lack of essential amino acids, which are the building blocks of proteins.

       Often occurs in areas where the primary diet is composed of starchy foods with low protein content.

       Commonly affects children during weaning when protein-rich foods are not adequately introduced.

Symptoms:

1. Edema (Swelling):

      Swelling, particularly in the ankles, feet, and belly, due to fluid retention.

2. Muscle Wasting:

      Loss of muscle mass, leading to weakness and fatigue.

3. Irritability and Changes in Behaviour:

      Children may become irritable, apathetic, or exhibit changes in behaviour.

4. Skin and Hair Changes:

      Dry, flaky skin and changes in hair colour and texture.

5. Enlarged Liver:

      The liver may become enlarged due to fatty infiltration.

6. Anemia:

      Low levels of hemoglobin, leading to anemia.

7. Loss of Appetite:

      Children may experience a reduced appetite and may avoid protein-rich foods.

8. Infections:

      Increased susceptibility to infections due to compromised immune function.

Diagnosis:

       Clinical evaluation based on physical symptoms like edema, muscle wasting, and changes in skin and hair.

       Laboratory tests to assess protein levels, albumin, and other nutritional markers.

Treatment:

1. Dietary Intervention:

      Gradual introduction of protein-rich foods, including milk, eggs, and legumes.

      Balanced nutrition to address overall malnutrition.

2. Medical Monitoring:

      Close monitoring of the child's health, growth, and response to treatment.

3. Supplements:

      In severe cases, nutritional supplements or therapeutic foods may be provided.

4. Treatment of Infections:

      Prompt treatment of any concurrent infections to prevent complications.

Complications:

1. Organ Damage:

      Severe cases of kwashiorkor can lead to organ damage, especially to the liver and heart.

2. Delayed Growth and Development:

      Long-term effects on physical and cognitive development, especially if the condition develops during early childhood.

3. Weakened Immune System:

      Increased vulnerability to infections and a weakened immune system.

4. Risk of Relapse:

      If dietary changes are not sustained, there is a risk of relapse.

5. Mortality:

      In extreme cases, kwashiorkor can be fatal, particularly if not treated promptly and effectively.

 

Ques: what are polypeptide give its biological importance.

Polypeptides are large molecules made up of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.

Polypeptides are not only the building blocks of proteins but also the key players in the proper functioning of living organisms.

1. It is a Building Blocks of Proteins:
• Polypeptides are the building blocks of proteins.
• Proteins are essential macromolecules that perform a wide variety of functions in living organisms.
• These functions include structural support, catalysing chemical reactions, transportation of molecules, and serving as signalling molecules.
2. Responsible for Structural Diversity:
• The sequence and arrangement of amino acids in a polypeptide chain determine the structure and function of the resulting protein.
•  The incredible diversity in proteins is due to the countless ways amino acids can be arranged, allowing for a wide range of functions.
3. Took part in Enzymatic Activities:
• Many polypeptides function as enzymes.
• Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in cells.
• Without enzymes, many essential biochemical reactions would occur too slowly to sustain life.
4. Aids in Cellular Communication:
• Some polypeptides serve as signalling molecules or hormones.
• These molecules transmit signals between cells and regulate various processes such as growth, development, metabolism etc.
5. Supports Immune System Function:
• Antibodies are also polypeptides. And hence it also supports immune system function.
6. Responsible for Transportation of O2 and removal of co2 in the body.
• Haemoglobin, a polypeptide, is responsible for transporting oxygen in the blood.
• This is essential for cellular respiration, where cells utilize oxygen to generate energy.
7. Muscle Contraction:
• Actin and myosin, two important proteins involved in muscle contraction, are composed of polypeptide chains. The coordinated interaction of these polypeptides allows muscles to contract and generate movement.
8. Provides Structural Support to the body – ex collogen fibre
• Collagen, a fibrous protein made of polypeptide chains, provides structural support to connective tissues in the body. It is a key component of skin, tendons, ligaments, and bones.

CHAPTER 04

 

 

Ques: what are lipids and classify them with suitable example

Lipids are a group of organic compounds that are mostly insoluble in water and have various functions in living organisms.

Lipids are composed of fats and oils, which yield high energy and are responsible for different functions within the human body.

They are nonpolar molecules, which means they are soluble only in nonpolar solvents and insoluble in water because water is a polar molecule.

Lipids can be classified into two main classes: nonsaponifiable lipids and saponifiable lipids.

 

Nonsaponifiable lipids cannot be disintegrated (broken down) into smaller molecules through hydrolysis and include cholesterol and prostaglandins

Saponifiable lipids are lipids that contain one or more ester groups, which can be hydrolyzed by acids, bases, or enzymes. They include:

• Simple lipids, which are composed of fatty acids and alcohols.

Examples are fats, oils, and waxes.

Fats and oils are triglycerides, which yield fatty acids and glycerol upon hydrolysis.

Waxes are esters, which yield fatty acids and long-chain alcohols upon  hydrolysis.

• Compound or conjugated lipids are composed of fatty acids, glycerol, and additional groups such as phosphates or carbohydrates.

Examples are phospholipids, which are the main constituents of cell membranes.

• Derived lipids, which are substances derived from simple or compound lipids by hydrolysis or other chemical reactions.

Examples are sterols, such as cholesterol and vitamin D

and fat-soluble vitamins, such as vitamins A, E, and K.

Ques: discuss the importance and function of lipids

Lipids are important organic molecules that have various roles in living organisms. Some of the main functions of lipids are:

• Energy storage and production. 

Importance: Lipids are efficient energy storage molecules. They store more energy per gram than carbohydrates. Triglycerides, a type of lipid, serve as the primary form of stored energy in adipose (fat) tissue.

Function: When the body needs energy, it can break down triglycerides into fatty acids, releasing energy for use.

• Cell membrane structure and function. 

Importance: Lipids contribute to the structure of cell membranes.

Function: Phospholipids, a type of lipid, are integral components of cell membranes. They form a lipid bilayer that surrounds and protects cells, controlling what enters and exits.

• Hormone synthesis and regulation. 

Importance: Lipids are precursors for the synthesis of hormones.

Function: Cholesterol, a type of lipid, serves as a precursor for the synthesis of steroid hormones, such as estrogen, and testosterone.

[precursors =a substance from which another is formed, especially by metabolic reaction]

• Nerve impulse transmission and protection. 

Importance: Lipids are essential for the proper functioning of the nervous system.

Function: Lipids like sphingolipids and glycolipids are integral components of nerve cell membranes and myelin sheaths. These structures are vital for nerve impulse conduction.

• Transport of Fat-Soluble Vitamins:

Importance: Lipids aid in the absorption and transport of fat-soluble vitamins.

Function: Lipids help transport vitamins K, E, D, A, which are crucial for various functions, such as vision, bone health, blood clotting etc.

 

CHAPTER 6

Describe an enzyme and its properties.

An enzyme is a type of protein that acts as a catalyst in biochemical reactions.

Enzymes are not consumed during the reaction, and they do not change the structure of the final product.

Enzymes initiate and accelerate biochemical reactions and their activity depends on the medium acidity

Enzymes are Job-Specific

Each enzyme is like a worker with a specific job. They are picky about the tasks they handle, making sure everything gets done correctly.

Very Specific in nature/Lock and key model.

Enzymes are highly specific in nature, which means that a specific enzyme can catalyze a specific reaction.

Shape-shifters:

Enzymes can change their shape to do the job perfectly.

Temperature and pH specific

Enzymes prefer specific conditions, like the right temperature and pH, to work their best.

Names Tell the Story:

Enzyme names often end in "-ase" and tell you what job they do.

Adjustable Speed:

Enzymes can speed up or slow down, adapting to the body's needs. It's like changing gears in a car to match the speed of the road.

Team Players:

Enzymes work together as a team to keep everything running smoothly. where everyone has a specific role to play.

               Factors that affects enzymatic reaction.

1.       Temperature: Enzymes like a comfy temperature.

2.       pH (Acidity or Alkalinity): Enzymes work best in the right acidity level.

3.       Substrate Amount: Enzymes prefer having just enough material to work on.

4.       Cofactors and Coenzymes: Enzymes sometimes need special helpers.

5.       Inhibitors: Things that slow down or stop enzymes.

6.       Enzyme Quantity: More enzymes mean faster work.

7.       Allosteric Switches: Molecules that can turn enzymes on or off.

8.       Genetic Instructions: Enzymes follow genetic recipes.

9.       Competition: Enzymes might compete for the same task.

10.   Activation State: Enzymes need to be "awake" to do their job.

 

Discuss competitive and non competitive nature of enzymes.

The main difference between competitive and noncompetitive inhibition is that

The competitive inhibition is the binding of the inhibitor to the active site of the enzyme whereas noncompetitive inhibition is the binding of the inhibitor to the enzyme at a point other than the active site.

 

Discuss the therapeutic applications of enzymes in easy medical terms.

Enzymes are used to supplement ‘’what the body lacks’’ or ‘’enhance certain processes’’.

They are like tiny workers that help with various tasks.

such as breaking down food into nutrients, repairing damaged cells, and performing other essential functions.

scientists have found ways to use these enzymes in the form of medicines to treat certain disorders.

1. Enzymes are used to treat Digestive Disorders:
• Sometimes, our bodies don't produce enough digestive enzymes to break down food properly. In such cases, doctors can prescribe digestive enzyme supplements to aid digestion.
2. Enzymes are used to treat certain Genetic Disorders: ex, Enzyme Replacement Therapy.
• Some people are born with genetic conditions--- that make their bodies unable to produce certain enzymes.
• Aim of Enzyme replacement therapy is to provide these missing enzymes.
• For example, in conditions like Gau|cher disease, where the body lacks a specific enzyme, providing that enzyme can help manage the disorder.
3. Enzymes play a crucial role in blood clotting.
• Enzymes play a crucial role in blood clotting. In certain medical situations, like surgery or for people with clotting disorders, doctors may use medications containing enzymes to prevent excessive bleeding.
4. Enzymes are used in Cancer Treatment:
• Some enzymes can be used in cancer therapy.
•  For instance, researchers are exploring the use of enzymes to target and break down cancer cells.
• This is an area of active research, and scientists are continually finding new ways to use enzymes to fight cancer.
5. Enzymes are used to treat Inflammation:
• Enzymes can also be used to reduce inflammation.
• In conditions where the body's immune system is too active and causes inflammation, such as arthritis, certain enzymes can be used to control this immune response and alleviate symptoms.
6. Enzymes are used in Wound Healing:
• Enzymes play a role in the healing process.
• Enzymes are used as medications to clean the wounds and promote tissue repair.
This can be particularly useful in treating conditions where wounds are slow to heal.

 

Discuss pharmaceutical importance of enzymes.

The pharmaceutical importance of enzymes: -

enzymes play a crucial role in drug development.

They play crucial role in manufacturing.

Here's an overview of the pharmaceutical significance of enzymes:

1. Drug Development and Discovery:
• Enzymes are essential tools in drug discovery and development.
• Understanding the MOA of enzymes involved in diseases -  allows researchers to design drugs - that specifically target these enzymes- hence leads to a more effective therapies.
2. Biocatalysis in Drug Synthesis:
• Enzymes are employed in the synthesis of pharmaceutical compounds. This application, known as biocatalysis, offers several advantages over traditional chemical synthesis, such as increased specificity, milder reaction conditions, and reduced environmental impact. Enzymes can catalyze complex reactions with high efficiency, contributing to the production of pharmaceuticals in a more sustainable and cost-effective manner.
3. Enzymes are used to enhance drug stability and drug delivery.
• enzymes can be encapsulated in nanoparticles to enhance drug stability and control release rates.
4. Enzymes are used for Diagnostic purpose.
5. Enzymes are used to treat certain genetic disorders.
• Some people are born with genetic conditions--- that make their bodies unable to produce certain enzymes.
• Aim of Enzyme replacement therapy is to provide these missing enzymes.
• For example, in conditions like Gau|cher disease, where the body lacks a specific enzyme, providing that enzyme can help manage the disorder.
6. Thrombolytic Enzymes:
• Enzymes play a crucial role in blood clotting.
• In certain medical situations, like surgery or for people with clotting disorders, doctors may use medications containing enzymes to prevent excessive bleeding.
7. Enzymes in Anti-Cancer Therapy:
• Some enzymes can be used in cancer therapy.
•  For instance, researchers are exploring the use of enzymes to target and break down cancer cells.
• This is an area of active research, and scientists are continually finding new ways to use enzymes to fight cancer.
8. Enzymes for Metabolic Disorders:
• Sometimes, our bodies don't produce enough digestive enzymes to break down food properly. In such cases, doctors can prescribe digestive enzyme supplements to aid digestion.

 

Define and classify vitamins with examples.

Vitamins are essential organic compounds that the human body needs in small amounts for various bodily functions.

They have to be supplied with food as they are not synthesised in body.

They play crucial roles in metabolism, growth, and overall health.

Vitamins are divided into two main categories based on their solubility:

water-soluble and fat-soluble.

1] fat soluble vitamins-

These are soluble in fat and are stored in liver.

There absorption requires bile salts and fats.

1. Vitamin A (Retinol, Retinal, Retinoic Acid):
• Function: Vision, immune system, skin health.
• Sources: Carrots, sweet potatoes, spinach, liver.
2. Vitamin D (Calciferol):
• Function: Calcium absorption, bone health.
• Sources: Sunlight, fish, dairy products.
3. Vitamin E (Tocopherols, Tocotrienols):
• Function: Antioxidant, cell membrane protection.
• Sources: Nuts, seeds, vegetable oils, spinach.
4. Vitamin K (Phylloquinone, Menaquinone):
• Function: Blood clotting, bone metabolism.
• Sources: green Leaf vegetables, broccoli, soybean oil.

Water-Soluble Vitamins: 

These are soluble in water and are not stored in the body.

Water soluble vitamins include Vitamin B and C groups.

1. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid):
• Function: Antioxidant, collagen synthesis, immune function.
• Sources: Citrus fruits (oranges, lemons), tomatoes etc.
2. B Vitamins:

 

Importance of water-soluble vitamins.

 

1. Energy Production: (B-Vitamins):
• Job: help convert the food we eat into energy.
• Examples: B1, B2, B3, B5, B6, B7, B9, B12.

 

2. Antioxidant Défense (Vitamin C):
• Vitamin C is a powerful antioxidant that helps protect our cells from damage caused by free radicals.

 

3. Skin Health (Vitamin C):
• Job: Builds strong, healthy skin and helps wounds heal.

 

4. Neurotransmitter Function: (B-Vitamins):
• B-vitamins, especially B6, are involved in the synthesis of neurotransmitters.
• These are chemical messengers that play a crucial role in transmitting signals in the nervous system, affecting mood, cognition, and overall brain function.

 

5. DNA Synthesis and Cell Division: (Folate - B9):
• Vitamin B9 (folate) is vital for DNA synthesis and cell division. This is particularly important during periods of rapid cell growth, such as pregnancy and adolescence.

 

6. Red Blood Cell Formation:
• Vitamin B12 is necessary for the formation of red blood cells, which transport oxygen throughout the body. A deficiency in B12 can lead to anemia and fatigue.

 

7. Immune System Support:

·         Vitamin C supports immune system.

·         It helps the body resist infections and reduces the severity of infection or illness.

 

 

Role of vitamin A

 

 

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Deficiency of vitamin A

 

Vitamin A is a vitamin that your body needs for various jobs. Not getting enough of it can cause problems like:

1. Night Blindness [Trouble Seeing in the Dark] : It can make it hard to see at night, like having night vision problems.

 

2. Xerophthalmia [Dry and Sore Eyes] : In more severe cases, a vitamin A deficiency can lead to xerophthalmia, a condition characterized by dryness of cornea, which can ultimately lead to blindness if left untreated.

 

3. Impaired Immunity [Getting Sick More Often] : Vitamin A is essential for the proper functioning of the immune system. A deficiency can weaken the immune response, making the body more susceptible to infections.

 

4. Skin problems: Vitamin A is important for maintaining healthy skin, and a deficiency can lead to dry, rough skin, as well as various skin disorders.

 

5. Respiratory Infections: Vitamin A deficiency is associated with an increased risk of respiratory infections, such as pneumonia and bronchitis.

 

6. Growth and Development Issues: In children, a lack of vitamin A can impair growth and development, both physically and mentally.

 

7. Reproductive Issues: Vitamin A is important for reproductive health, and a deficiency can led to complications during pregnancy and childbirth.

 

8. Hair and Nails: Brittle hair and nails are also potential symptoms of vitamin A deficiency.

 

 

 

Define vitamin D. its functions, absorption, excretion, biochemical role and deficiency associated with it.

 

Vitamin D is a fat-soluble vitamin that is essential for various functions in the body.

 

Definition: is a fat-soluble vitamin that the body needs for various essential functions, including regulating calcium and phosphorus levels in the blood, promoting bone health, supporting the immune system and etc.

 

Functions:

1. Calcium and Phosphorus Regulation: Vitamin D plays a crucial role in regulating the levels of calcium and phosphorus in the blood which is essential for maintaining healthy bones and teeth.

 

2. Bone Health: It helps in the development of strong bones by promoting the absorption of calcium.

 

3. Immune System Support: Vitamin D is involved in the functioning of the immune system.

 

4. Cell Growth and Regulation: It also plays a key role in regulating cell growth and may have implications in cancer prevention.

 

Absorption:

Vitamin D can be obtained from sunlight, dietary sources, and supplements.

When your skin is exposed to sunlight, it can produce vitamin D.

It can also be obtained from foods like fatty fish, fortified dairy products, and supplements.

 

Excretion: Excess vitamin D is stored in the body's fat tissue, and it can be excreted through urine and feces.

The body can also use these stored reserves when there's a deficiency.

 

Biochemical Role: Vitamin D is converted into its usable [active] form in the liver and kidneys.

The active form, called calcitriol, regulates the absorption of calcium and phosphate in the intestines and controls calcium levels in the blood.

This, in turn, affects bone health and various other bodily processes.

 

Deficiency: Vitamin D deficiency can lead to various health issues, including:

 

• Rickets: A condition in children characterized by soft, weak bones and skeletal deformities.
• Osteomalacia: A similar condition in adults where bones become soft and weak.

 

• Increased Risk of Infections: A weakened immune system, making you more susceptible to infections.

 

• Osteoporosis: Reduced bone density and increased risk of fractures.

 

[Osteo – bone              pours- low in density          osis – to be affected with something]

 

• Muscle Weakness: Muscular weakness and pain.

 

• Autoimmune Diseases: An increased risk of autoimmune diseases like multiple sclerosis and type 1 diabetes.

 

Vitamins and diseases associated with it.

 

Water-Soluble Vitamins:

 

1. Vitamin C (Ascorbic Acid):
• Role: Essential for collagen production, wound healing, and immune function.

 

• Deficiency: Can lead to scurvy, characterized by fatigue, weakness, and bleeding gums.

 

Fat-Soluble Vitamins:

 

3. Vitamin A:
• Role: Essential for vision, skin health, and immune function.

 

• Deficiency: Can cause night blindness, dry skin, and a weakened immune system.

 

4. Vitamin D:
• Role: Regulates calcium absorption, supports bone health, and has an impact on the immune system.

 

• Deficiency: Can lead to rickets in children and osteomalacia in adults, along with increased infection risk.

 

5. Vitamin E:
• Role: Acts as an antioxidant, protecting cells from damage.

 

• Deficiency: Rare but can result in nerve and muscle damage.

 

6. Vitamin K:
• Role: Necessary for blood clotting and bone metabolism.

 

• Deficiency: Can lead to excessive bleeding and easy bruising.

 

Common Deficiencies:

• Beriberi: Deficiency of vitamin B1 (thiamine), resulting in weakness, fatigue, and nerve problems.

 

• Scurvy: Deficiency of vitamin C, causing fatigue, bleeding gums, and skin problems.

 

• Rickets: A result of vitamin D deficiency, leading to soft, weak bones, and skeletal deformities in children.

 

• Osteomalacia: Adult version of rickets, causing weak and brittle bones due to vitamin D deficiency.

 

• Anemia: Often linked to a lack of vitamin B12, B9 (folate), or B6, resulting in reduced red blood cell production.

 

• Night Blindness: A sign of vitamin A deficiency, causing difficulty seeing in low light.

 

• Hemorrhagic Disease: Linked to vitamin K deficiency, causing excessive bleeding.

 

 

Diseases caused by vitamin B deficiency.

 

1. Beriberi (caused by a lack of B1):
• It can make your heart and muscles weak.
• Two types: one with heart problems and swelling (wet beriberi), the other with muscle and nerve issues (dry beriberi).

 

2. Ariboflavinosis (caused by a lack of B2):
• It gives you a sore throat, redness in your mouth, and cracks at the corners of your lips.

 

3. Pellagra (caused by a lack of B3):
• You get tummy trouble, itchy skin, and may even feel confused or forgetful.

 

4. Fatigue and Muscle Cramps (caused by a lack of B5):
• You might feel very tired and get muscle cramps.

 

5. Nerve and Skin Problems (caused by a lack of B6):
• It can affect your nerves, skin, and blood.

 

6. Biotin deficiency (caused by a lack of B7): Biotin deficiency can cause skin issues, hair loss, and brittle nails.

 

7. Anemia (caused by a lack of B9):
• It makes you feel tired and weak, and your blood cells look strange.

 

8. Pernicious Anemia (caused by a lack of B12):
• It can cause tiredness, weak nerves, and trouble thinking.

 

Define coenzymes in easy medical terms with examples.

 

In simple terms, coenzymes are like the specialized tools that enzymes require to perform their specific tasks in your body's chemical reactions.

They work closely to make sure everything runs smoothly and efficiently.

 

 

Coenzymes are essential molecules that play a crucial role in your body's chemical processes.

Think of enzymes as workers, and coenzymes as their tools or helpers. These tools are vital because they ensure that the workers (enzymes) can efficiently carry out their jobs.

 

Enzymes are like workers with specific tasks in your body's chemical reactions. However, they can't complete these tasks on their own. This is where coenzymes step in.

Coenzymes are small molecules that work alongside enzymes, helping them by acting as co-workers, providing the necessary support to get the job done.

 

One example of a coenzyme is NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), which is derived from vitamin B3 (niacin).

NAD acts as an assistant to enzymes involved in converting the food you eat into energy.

Just like a worker needs the right tools to build something, enzymes need coenzymes like NAD to carry out their specific chemical reactions efficiently.

 

Another example is coenzyme Q10, which helps in the production of energy within your cells. Coenzyme Q10 can be thought of as the helper that ensures the workers (enzymes) involved in energy production have what they need to complete their tasks successfully.

 

 

 

Discuss role of vitamins and coenzymes in your body.

 

vitamins are essential nutrients that your body needs to maintain various bodily functions.

while coenzymes, often derived from vitamins, act as crucial cofactors for enzymes, ensuring that chemical reactions in your body run smoothly and efficiently.

 

 

1. Vitamins as Essential Nutrients:
• Vitamins are organic compounds that your body needs in small amounts to function properly.

 

• They are essential nutrients because your body cannot produce vitamins on its own, so you must obtain them from your diet.
• Each vitamin has a specific role in various bodily functions, such as growth, immune system support, and maintaining healthy skin, vision, and bones.

 

• Different vitamins serve different purposes.
• For example, vitamin C (ascorbic acid) is essential for collagen production, while vitamin D is crucial for calcium absorption and bone health.

 

2. Coenzymes and Enzyme Activity:
• Coenzymes are small, non-protein molecules that assist enzymes in their biochemical reactions.
• They are often derived from vitamins in your body.
• Enzymes acts as a catalysts that speed up chemical reactions in your body.
• Coenzymes are like helpers for these enzymes, ensuring that they function efficiently.
• Coenzymes can facilitate a wide range of enzymatic reactions, from energy production to the breakdown of food molecules, and the synthesis of important compounds.

 

3. Working Together:
• Many coenzymes are derived from vitamins.
• For instance, vitamin B3 (niacin) can be converted into NAD (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), which is a critical coenzyme involved in various metabolic reactions, especially energy production.

 

• Vitamin B6 (pyridoxine) is involved in the synthesis of coenzymes necessary for amino acid metabolism and neurotransmitter synthesis.

 

4. Deficiencies and Health Implications:
• Deficiencies in vitamins and coenzymes can lead to various health problems.

 

• For example, a lack of vitamin C can result in scurvy, characterized by weak connective tissues and impaired wound healing.

 

• A deficiency in specific B vitamins can lead to conditions like beriberi (thiamine deficiency) or pellagra (niacin deficiency).

 

• Inadequate coenzyme production or function can disrupt critical metabolic pathways, affecting energy production, DNA repair, and many other processes.